Rational Functions

Using Arrow Notation

We have seen the graphs of the basic reciprocal function and the squared reciprocal function from our study of toolkit functions. Examine these graphs, as shown in Figure 1, and notice some of their features.

Graphs of f(x)=1/x and f(x)=1/x^2 — Figure 1

Several things are apparent if we examine the graph of $f (x) = \frac{1}{x} .$

On the left branch of the graph, the curve approaches the x-axis $(y = 0) as x \to - \infty .$
As the graph approaches $x = 0$ from the left, the curve drops, but as we approach zero from the right, the curve rises.
Finally, on the right branch of the graph, the curves approaches the x-axis $(y = 0) as x \to \infty .$

To summarize, we use arrow notation to show that $x$ or $f (x)$ is approaching a particular value. See Table 1.

Table 1 Arrow Notation
Symbol	Meaning
$x \to a^{-}$	$x$ approaches $a$ from the left ( $x < a$ but close to $a$ )
$x \to a^{+}$	$x$ approaches $a$ from the right ( $x > a$ but close to $a$ )
$x \to \infty$	$x$ approaches infinity ( $x$ increases without bound)
$x \to - \infty$	$x$ approaches negative infinity ( $x$ decreases without bound)
$f (x) \to \infty$	the output approaches infinity (the output increases without bound)
$f (x) \to - \infty$	the output approaches negative infinity (the output decreases without bound)
$f (x) \to a$	the output approaches $a$

Local Behavior of $f (x) = \frac{1}{x}$

Let’s begin by looking at the reciprocal function, $f (x) = \frac{1}{x} .$ We cannot divide by zero, which means the function is undefined at $x = 0;$ so zero is not in the domain. As the input values approach zero from the left side (becoming very small, negative values), the function values decrease without bound (in other words, they approach negative infinity). We can see this behavior in Table 2.

Table 2 ..
$x$	–0.1	–0.01	–0.001	–0.0001
$f (x) = \frac{1}{x}$	–10	–100	–1000	–10,000

We write in arrow notation

as x \to 0^{-}, f (x) \to - \infty

As the input values approach zero from the right side (becoming very small, positive values), the function values increase without bound (approaching infinity). We can see this behavior in Table 3.

Table 3 ..
$x$	0.1	0.01	0.001	0.0001
$f (x) = \frac{1}{x}$	10	100	1000	10,000

We write in arrow notation

As x \to 0^{+}, f (x) \to \infty .

See Figure 2.

Graph of f(x)=1/x which denotes the end behavior. As x goes to negative infinity, f(x) goes to 0, and as x goes to 0^-, f(x) goes to negative infinity. As x goes to positive infinity, f(x) goes to 0, and as x goes to 0^+, f(x) goes to positive infinity. — Figure 2

This behavior creates a vertical asymptote, which is a vertical line that the graph approaches but never crosses. In this case, the graph is approaching the vertical line $x = 0$ as the input becomes close to zero. See Figure 3.

Graph of f(x)=1/x with its vertical asymptote at x=0. — Figure 3

End Behavior of $f (x) = \frac{1}{x}$

As the values of $x$ approach infinity, the function values approach 0. As the values of $x$ approach negative infinity, the function values approach 0. See Figure 4. Symbolically, using arrow notation

$As x \to \infty, f (x) \to 0, and as x \to - \infty, f (x) \to 0.$

Graph of f(x)=1/x which highlights the segments of the turning points to denote their end behavior. — Figure 4

Based on this overall behavior and the graph, we can see that the function approaches 0 but never actually reaches 0; it seems to level off as the inputs become large. This behavior creates a horizontal asymptote, a horizontal line that the graph approaches as the input increases or decreases without bound. In this case, the graph is approaching the horizontal line $y = 0.$ See Figure 5.

Graph of f(x)=1/x with its vertical asymptote at x=0 and its horizontal asymptote at y=0. — Figure 5

Example 1

Using Arrow Notation

Use arrow notation to describe the end behavior and local behavior of the function graphed in Figure 6.

Graph of f(x)=1/(x-2)+4 with its vertical asymptote at x=2 and its horizontal asymptote at y=4. — Figure 6

Solution

Notice that the graph is showing a vertical asymptote at $x = 2,$ which tells us that the function is undefined at $x = 2.$

As x \to 2^{-}, f (x) \to - \infty, and as x \to 2^{+}, f (x) \to \infty .

And as the inputs decrease without bound, the graph appears to be leveling off at output values of 4, indicating a horizontal asymptote at $y = 4.$ As the inputs increase without bound, the graph levels off at 4.

As x \to \infty, f (x) \to 4 and as x \to - \infty, f (x) \to 4.

Example 2

Using Transformations to Graph a Rational Function

Sketch a graph of the reciprocal function shifted two units to the left and up three units. Identify the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the graph, if any.

Solution

Shifting the graph left 2 and up 3 would result in the function

f (x) = \frac{1}{x + 2} + 3

or equivalently, by giving the terms a common denominator,

f (x) = \frac{3 x + 7}{x + 2}

The graph of the shifted function is displayed in Figure 7.

Graph of f(x)=1/(x+2)+3 with its vertical asymptote at x=-2 and its horizontal asymptote at y=3. — Figure 7

Notice that this function is undefined at $x = - 2,$ and the graph also is showing a vertical asymptote at $x = - 2.$

As x \to - 2^{-}, f (x) \to - \infty, and as x \to - 2^{+}, f (x) \to \infty .

As the inputs increase and decrease without bound, the graph appears to be leveling off at output values of 3, indicating a horizontal asymptote at $y = 3.$

As x \to \pm \infty, f (x) \to 3.

Analysis

Notice that horizontal and vertical asymptotes are shifted left 2 and up 3 along with the function.

Solving Applied Problems Involving Rational Functions

In Example 2, we shifted a toolkit function in a way that resulted in the function $f (x) = \frac{3 x + 7}{x + 2} .$ This is an example of a rational function. A rational function is a function that can be written as the quotient of two polynomial functions. Many real-world problems require us to find the ratio of two polynomial functions. Problems involving rates and concentrations often involve rational functions.

Example 3

Solving an Applied Problem Involving a Rational Function

After running out of pre-packaged supplies, a nurse in a refugee camp is preparing an intravenous sugar solution for patients in the camp hospital. A large mixing tank currently contains 100 gallons of water into which 5 pounds of sugar have been mixed. A tap will open pouring 10 gallons per minute of distilled water into the tank at the same time sugar is poured into the tank at a rate of 1 pound per minute. Find the concentration (pounds per gallon) of sugar in the tank after 12 minutes. Is that a greater concentration than at the beginning?

Solution

Let $t$ be the number of minutes since the tap opened. Since the water increases at 10 gallons per minute, and the sugar increases at 1 pound per minute, these are constant rates of change. This tells us the amount of water in the tank is changing linearly, as is the amount of sugar in the tank. We can write an equation independently for each:

\begin{array}{l} water: W (t) = 100 + 10 t in gallons \\ sugar: S (t) = 5 + 1 t in pounds \end{array}

The concentration, $C,$ will be the ratio of pounds of sugar to gallons of water

C (t) = \frac{5 + t}{100 + 10 t}

The concentration after 12 minutes is given by evaluating $C (t)$ at $t = 12.$

\begin{array}{l} C (12) = \frac{5 + 12}{100 + 10 (12)} \\ = \frac{17}{220} \end{array}

This means the concentration is 17 pounds of sugar to 220 gallons of water.

At the beginning, the concentration is

\begin{array}{l} C (0) = \frac{5 + 0}{100 + 10 (0)} \\ = \frac{1}{20} \end{array}

Since $\frac{17}{220} \approx 0.08 > \frac{1}{20} = 0.05,$ the concentration is greater after 12 minutes than at the beginning.

Analysis

To find the horizontal asymptote, divide the leading coefficient in the numerator by the leading coefficient in the denominator:

\frac{1}{10} = 0.1

Notice the horizontal asymptote is $y = 0.1.$ This means the concentration, $C,$ the ratio of pounds of sugar to gallons of water, will approach 0.1 in the long term.

Finding the Domains of Rational Functions

A vertical asymptote represents a value at which a rational function is undefined, so that value is not in the domain of the function. A reciprocal function cannot have values in its domain that cause the denominator to equal zero. In general, to find the domain of a rational function, we need to determine which inputs would cause division by zero.

Example 4

Finding the Domain of a Rational Function

Find the domain of $f (x) = \frac{x + 3}{x^{2} - 9} .$

Solution

Begin by setting the denominator equal to zero and solving.

\begin{array}{l} \begin{array}{l} x^{2} - 9 = 0 \end{array} \\ x^{2} = 9 \\ x = \pm 3 \end{array}

The denominator is equal to zero when $x = \pm 3.$ The domain of the function is all real numbers except $x = \pm 3.$

Analysis

A graph of this function, as shown in Figure 8, confirms that the function is not defined when $x = \pm 3.$

Graph of f(x)=1/(x-3) with its vertical asymptote at x=3 and its horizontal asymptote at y=0. — Figure 8

There is a vertical asymptote at $x = 3$ and a hole in the graph at $x = - 3.$ We will discuss these types of holes in greater detail later in this section.

Identifying Vertical Asymptotes of Rational Functions

By looking at the graph of a rational function, we can investigate its local behavior and easily see whether there are asymptotes. We may even be able to approximate their location. Even without the graph, however, we can still determine whether a given rational function has any asymptotes, and calculate their location.

Vertical Asymptotes

The vertical asymptotes of a rational function may be found by examining the factors of the denominator that are not common to the factors in the numerator. Vertical asymptotes occur at the zeros of such factors.

Example 5

Identifying Vertical Asymptotes

Find the vertical asymptotes of the graph of $k (x) = \frac{5 + 2 x^{2}}{2 - x - x^{2}} .$

Solution

First, factor the numerator and denominator.

\begin{array}{l} k (x) = \frac{5 + 2 x^{2}}{2 - x - x^{2}} \\ = \frac{5 + 2 x^{2}}{(2 + x) (1 - x)} \end{array}

To find the vertical asymptotes, we determine where this function will be undefined by setting the denominator equal to zero:

\begin{array}{l} (2 + x) (1 - x) = 0 \\ x = - 2, 1 \end{array}

Neither $x = - 2$ nor $x = 1$ are zeros of the numerator, so the two values indicate two vertical asymptotes. The graph in Figure 9 confirms the location of the two vertical asymptotes.

Graph of k(x)=(5+2x)^2/(2-x-x^2) with its vertical asymptotes at x=-2 and x=1 and its horizontal asymptote at y=-2. — Figure 9

Removable Discontinuities

Occasionally, a graph will contain a hole: a single point where the graph is not defined, indicated by an open circle. We call such a hole a removable discontinuity.

For example, the function $f (x) = \frac{x^{2} - 1}{x^{2} - 2 x - 3}$ may be re-written by factoring the numerator and the denominator.

f (x) = \frac{(x + 1) (x - 1)}{(x + 1) (x - 3)}

Notice that $x + 1$ is a common factor to the numerator and the denominator. The zero of this factor, $x = - 1,$ is the location of the removable discontinuity. Notice also that $x - 3$ is not a factor in both the numerator and denominator. The zero of this factor, $x = 3,$ is the vertical asymptote. See Figure 10.

Graph of f(x)=(x^2-1)/(x^2-2x-3) with its vertical asymptote at x=3 and a removable discontinuity at x=-1. — Figure 10

Example 6

Identifying Vertical Asymptotes and Removable Discontinuities for a Graph

Find the vertical asymptotes and removable discontinuities of the graph of $k (x) = \frac{x - 2}{x^{2} - 4} .$

Solution

Factor the numerator and the denominator.

k (x) = \frac{x - 2}{(x - 2) (x + 2)}

Notice that there is a common factor in the numerator and the denominator, $x - 2.$ The zero for this factor is $x = 2.$ This is the location of the removable discontinuity.

Notice that there is a factor in the denominator that is not in the numerator, $x + 2.$ The zero for this factor is $x = - 2.$ The vertical asymptote is $x = - 2.$ See Figure 11.

Graph of k(x)=(x-2)/(x-2)(x+2) with its vertical asymptote at x=-2 and a removable discontinuity at x=2. — Figure 11

The graph of this function will have the vertical asymptote at $x = −2,$ but at $x = 2$ the graph will have a hole.

Identifying Horizontal Asymptotes of Rational Functions

While vertical asymptotes describe the behavior of a graph as the output gets very large or very small, horizontal asymptotes help describe the behavior of a graph as the input gets very large or very small. Recall that a polynomial’s end behavior will mirror that of the leading term. Likewise, a rational function’s end behavior will mirror that of the ratio of the leading terms of the numerator and denominator functions.

There are three distinct outcomes when checking for horizontal asymptotes:

Case 1: If the degree of the denominator > degree of the numerator, there is a horizontal asymptote at $y = 0.$

Example: f (x) = \frac{4 x + 2}{x^{2} + 4 x - 5}

In this case, the end behavior is $f (x) \approx \frac{4 x}{x^{2}} = \frac{4}{x} .$ This tells us that, as the inputs increase or decrease without bound, this function will behave similarly to the function $g (x) = \frac{4}{x},$ and the outputs will approach zero, resulting in a horizontal asymptote at $y = 0.$ See Figure 12. Note that this graph crosses the horizontal asymptote.

Graph of f(x)=(4x+2)/(x^2+4x-5) with its vertical asymptotes at x=-5 and x=1 and its horizontal asymptote at y=0. — Figure 12 Horizontal Asymptote $y = 0$ when $f (x) = \frac{p (x)}{q (x)}, q (x) \neq 0 where degree of p < d e g r e e o f q .$

Case 2: If the degree of the denominator < degree of the numerator by one, we get a slant asymptote.

Example: f (x) = \frac{3 x^{2} - 2 x + 1}{x - 1}

In this case, the end behavior is $f (x) \approx \frac{3 x^{2}}{x} = 3 x .$ This tells us that as the inputs increase or decrease without bound, this function will behave similarly to the function $g (x) = 3 x .$ As the inputs grow large, the outputs will grow and not level off, so this graph has no horizontal asymptote. However, the graph of $g (x) = 3 x$ looks like a diagonal line, and since $f$ will behave similarly to $g,$ it will approach a line close to $y = 3 x .$ This line is a slant asymptote.

To find the equation of the slant asymptote, divide $\frac{3 x^{2} - 2 x + 1}{x - 1} .$ The quotient is $3 x + 1,$ and the remainder is 2. The slant asymptote is the graph of the line $g (x) = 3 x + 1.$ See Figure 13.

Graph of f(x)=(3x^2-2x+1)/(x-1) with its vertical asymptote at x=1 and a slant asymptote aty=3x+1. — Figure 13 Slant Asymptote when $f (x) = \frac{p (x)}{q (x)}, q (x) \neq 0$ where degree of $p > degree of q by 1 .$

Case 3: If the degree of the denominator = degree of the numerator, there is a horizontal asymptote at $y = \frac{a_{n}}{b_{n}},$ where $a_{n}$ and $b_{n}$ are the leading coefficients of $p (x)$ and $q (x)$ for $f (x) = \frac{p (x)}{q (x)}, q (x) \neq 0.$

Example: f (x) = \frac{3 x^{2} + 2}{x^{2} + 4 x - 5}

In this case, the end behavior is $f (x) \approx \frac{3 x^{2}}{x^{2}} = 3.$ This tells us that as the inputs grow large, this function will behave like the function $g (x) = 3,$ which is a horizontal line. As $x \to \pm \infty, f (x) \to 3,$ resulting in a horizontal asymptote at $y = 3.$ See Figure 14. Note that this graph crosses the horizontal asymptote.

Graph of f(x)=(3x^2+2)/(x^2+4x-5) with its vertical asymptotes at x=-5 and x=1 and its horizontal asymptote at y=3. — Figure 14 Horizontal Asymptote when $f (x) = \frac{p (x)}{q (x)}, q (x) \neq 0 where degree of p = degree of q .$

Notice that, while the graph of a rational function will never cross a vertical asymptote, the graph may or may not cross a horizontal or slant asymptote. Also, although the graph of a rational function may have many vertical asymptotes, the graph will have at most one horizontal (or slant) asymptote.

It should be noted that, if the degree of the numerator is larger than the degree of the denominator by more than one, the end behavior of the graph will mimic the behavior of the reduced end behavior fraction. For instance, if we had the function

f (x) = \frac{3 x^{5} - x^{2}}{x + 3}

with end behavior

f (x) \approx \frac{3 x^{5}}{x} = 3 x^{4},

the end behavior of the graph would look similar to that of an even polynomial with a positive leading coefficient.

x \to \pm \infty, f (x) \to \infty

Example 7

Identifying Horizontal and Slant Asymptotes

For the functions below, identify the horizontal or slant asymptote.

ⓐ $g (x) = \frac{6 x^{3} - 10 x}{2 x^{3} + 5 x^{2}}$
ⓑ $h (x) = \frac{x^{2} - 4 x + 1}{x + 2}$
ⓒ $k (x) = \frac{x^{2} + 4 x}{x^{3} - 8}$

Solution

For these solutions, we will use $f (x) = \frac{p (x)}{q (x)}, q (x) \neq 0.$

ⓐ $g (x) = \frac{6 x^{3} - 10 x}{2 x^{3} + 5 x^{2}} :$ The degree of $p = degree of q = 3,$ so we can find the horizontal asymptote by taking the ratio of the leading terms. There is a horizontal asymptote at $y = \frac{6}{2}$ or $y = 3.$
ⓑ $h (x) = \frac{x^{2} - 4 x + 1}{x + 2} :$ The degree of $p = 2$ and degree of $q = 1.$ Since $p > q$ by 1, there is a slant asymptote found at $\frac{x^{2} - 4 x + 1}{x + 2} .$
$\begin{array}{l} \begin{matrix} -2 \end{matrix} \begin{array}{r} 1 & - 4 & 1 \\ - 2 & 12 \end{array} \\ \begin{array}{l} 1 & - 6 & 13 \end{array} \end{array}$
The quotient is $x - 6$ and the remainder is 13. There is a slant asymptote at $y = x - 6.$
ⓒ $k (x) = \frac{x^{2} + 4 x}{x^{3} - 8} :$ The degree of $p = 2 <$ degree of $q = 3,$ so there is a horizontal asymptote $y = 0.$

Example 8

Identifying Horizontal Asymptotes

In the sugar concentration problem earlier, we created the equation $C (t) = \frac{5 + t}{100 + 10 t} .$

Find the horizontal asymptote and interpret it in context of the problem.

Solution

Both the numerator and denominator are linear (degree 1). Because the degrees are equal, there will be a horizontal asymptote at the ratio of the leading coefficients. In the numerator, the leading term is $t,$ with coefficient 1. In the denominator, the leading term is $10 t,$ with coefficient 10. The horizontal asymptote will be at the ratio of these values:

t \to \infty, C (t) \to \frac{1}{10}

This function will have a horizontal asymptote at $y = \frac{1}{10} .$

This tells us that as the values of t increase, the values of $C$ will approach $\frac{1}{10} .$ In context, this means that, as more time goes by, the concentration of sugar in the tank will approach one-tenth of a pound of sugar per gallon of water or $\frac{1}{10}$ pounds per gallon.

Example 9

Identifying Horizontal and Vertical Asymptotes

Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the function

f (x) = \frac{(x - 2) (x + 3)}{(x - 1) (x + 2) (x - 5)}

Solution

First, note that this function has no common factors, so there are no potential removable discontinuities.

The function will have vertical asymptotes when the denominator is zero, causing the function to be undefined. The denominator will be zero at $x = 1, - 2, and 5,$ indicating vertical asymptotes at these values.

The numerator has degree 2, while the denominator has degree 3. Since the degree of the denominator is greater than the degree of the numerator, the denominator will grow faster than the numerator, causing the outputs to tend towards zero as the inputs get large, and so as $x \to \pm \infty, f (x) \to 0.$ This function will have a horizontal asymptote at $y = 0.$ See Figure 15.

Graph of f(x)=(x-2)(x+3)/(x-1)(x+2)(x-5) with its vertical asymptotes at x=-2, x=1, and x=5 and its horizontal asymptote at y=0. — Figure 15

Example 10

Finding the Intercepts of a Rational Function

Find the intercepts of $f (x) = \frac{(x - 2) (x + 3)}{(x - 1) (x + 2) (x - 5)} .$

Solution

We can find the y-intercept by evaluating the function at zero

\begin{array}{l} f (0) = \frac{(0 - 2) (0 + 3)}{(0 - 1) (0 + 2) (0 - 5)} \\ = \frac{- 6}{10} \\ = - \frac{3}{5} \\ = - 0.6 \end{array}

The x-intercepts will occur when the function is equal to zero:

\begin{array}{l} 0 = \frac{(x - 2) (x + 3)}{(x - 1) (x + 2) (x - 5)} & This is zero when the numerator is zero . \\ 0 = (x - 2) (x + 3) \\ x = 2, - 3 \end{array}

The y-intercept is $(0, –0.6),$ the x-intercepts are $(2, 0)$ and $(–3, 0) .$ See Figure 16.

Graph of f(x)=(x-2)(x+3)/(x-1)(x+2)(x-5) with its vertical asymptotes at x=-2, x=1, and x=5, its horizontal asymptote at y=0, and its intercepts at (-3, 0), (0, -0.6), and (2, 0). — Figure 16

Try It #7

Given the reciprocal squared function that is shifted right 3 units and down 4 units, write this as a rational function. Then, find the x- and y-intercepts and the horizontal and vertical asymptotes.

Solution

For the transformed reciprocal squared function, we find the rational form. $f (x) = \frac{1}{{(x - 3)}^{2}} - 4 = \frac{1 - 4 {(x - 3)}^{2}}{{(x - 3)}^{2}} = \frac{1 - 4 (x^{2} - 6 x + 9)}{(x - 3) (x - 3)} = \frac{- 4 x^{2} + 24 x - 35}{x^{2} - 6 x + 9}$

Because the numerator is the same degree as the denominator we know that as $x \to \pm \infty, f (x) \to - 4; so y = - 4$ is the horizontal asymptote. Next, we set the denominator equal to zero, and find that the vertical asymptote is $x = 3,$ because as $x \to 3, f (x) \to \infty .$ We then set the numerator equal to 0 and find the x-intercepts are at $(2.5, 0)$ and $(3.5, 0) .$ Finally, we evaluate the function at 0 and find the y-intercept to be at $(0, \frac{- 35}{9}) .$

Graphing Rational Functions

In Example 9, we see that the numerator of a rational function reveals the x-intercepts of the graph, whereas the denominator reveals the vertical asymptotes of the graph. As with polynomials, factors of the numerator may have integer powers greater than one. Fortunately, the effect on the shape of the graph at those intercepts is the same as we saw with polynomials.

The vertical asymptotes associated with the factors of the denominator will mirror one of the two toolkit reciprocal functions. When the degree of the factor in the denominator is odd, the distinguishing characteristic is that on one side of the vertical asymptote the graph heads towards positive infinity, and on the other side the graph heads towards negative infinity. See Figure 17.

Graph of y=1/x with its vertical asymptote at x=0. — Figure 17

When the degree of the factor in the denominator is even, the distinguishing characteristic is that the graph either heads toward positive infinity on both sides of the vertical asymptote or heads toward negative infinity on both sides. See Figure 18.

Graph of y=1/x^2 with its vertical asymptote at x=0. — Figure 18

For example, the graph of $f (x) = \frac{{(x + 1)}^{2} (x - 3)}{{(x + 3)}^{2} (x - 2)}$ is shown in Figure 19.

Graph of f(x)=(x+1)^2(x-3)/(x+3)^2(x-2) with its vertical asymptotes at x=-3 and x=2, its horizontal asymptote at y=1, and its intercepts at (-1, 0), (0, 1/6), and (3, 0). — Figure 19

At the x-intercept $x = - 1$ corresponding to the ${(x + 1)}^{2}$ factor of the numerator, the graph bounces, consistent with the quadratic nature of the factor.
At the x-intercept $x = 3$ corresponding to the $(x - 3)$ factor of the numerator, the graph passes through the axis as we would expect from a linear factor.
At the vertical asymptote $x = - 3$ corresponding to the ${(x + 3)}^{2}$ factor of the denominator, the graph heads towards positive infinity on both sides of the asymptote, consistent with the behavior of the function $f (x) = \frac{1}{x^{2}} .$
At the vertical asymptote $x = 2,$ corresponding to the $(x - 2)$ factor of the denominator, the graph heads towards positive infinity on the left side of the asymptote and towards negative infinity on the right side.

How To

Given a rational function, sketch a graph.

Evaluate the function at 0 to find the y-intercept.
Factor the numerator and denominator.
For factors in the numerator not common to the denominator, determine where each factor of the numerator is zero to find the x-intercepts.
Find the multiplicities of the x-intercepts to determine the behavior of the graph at those points.
For factors in the denominator, note the multiplicities of the zeros to determine the local behavior. For those factors not common to the numerator, find the vertical asymptotes by setting those factors equal to zero and then solve.
For factors in the denominator common to factors in the numerator, find the removable discontinuities by setting those factors equal to 0 and then solve.
Compare the degrees of the numerator and the denominator to determine the horizontal or slant asymptotes.
Sketch the graph.

Example 11

Graphing a Rational Function

Sketch a graph of $f (x) = \frac{(x + 2) (x - 3)}{{(x + 1)}^{2} (x - 2)} .$

Solution

We can start by noting that the function is already factored, saving us a step.

Next, we will find the intercepts. Evaluating the function at zero gives the y-intercept:

\begin{array}{l} f (0) = \frac{(0 + 2) (0 - 3)}{{(0 + 1)}^{2} (0 - 2)} \\ = 3 \end{array}

To find the x-intercepts, we determine when the numerator of the function is zero. Setting each factor equal to zero, we find x-intercepts at $x = –2$ and $x = 3.$ At each, the behavior will be linear (multiplicity 1), with the graph passing through the intercept.

We have a y-intercept at $(0, 3)$ and x-intercepts at $(–2, 0)$ and $(3, 0) .$

To find the vertical asymptotes, we determine when the denominator is equal to zero. This occurs when $x + 1 = 0$ and when $x - 2 = 0,$ giving us vertical asymptotes at $x = –1$ and $x = 2.$

There are no common factors in the numerator and denominator. This means there are no removable discontinuities.

Finally, the degree of denominator is larger than the degree of the numerator, telling us this graph has a horizontal asymptote at $y = 0.$

To sketch the graph, we might start by plotting the three intercepts. Since the graph has no x-intercepts between the vertical asymptotes, and the y-intercept is positive, we know the function must remain positive between the asymptotes, letting us fill in the middle portion of the graph as shown in Figure 20.

Graph of only the middle portion of f(x)=(x+2)(x-3)/(x+1)^2(x-2) with its intercepts at (-2, 0), (0, 3), and (3, 0). — Figure 20

The factor associated with the vertical asymptote at $x = −1$ was squared, so we know the behavior will be the same on both sides of the asymptote. The graph heads toward positive infinity as the inputs approach the asymptote on the right, so the graph will head toward positive infinity on the left as well.

For the vertical asymptote at $x = 2,$ the factor was not squared, so the graph will have opposite behavior on either side of the asymptote. See Figure 21. After passing through the x-intercepts, the graph will then level off toward an output of zero, as indicated by the horizontal asymptote.

Graph of f(x)=(x+2)(x-3)/(x+1)^2(x-2) with its vertical asymptotes at x=-1 and x=2, its horizontal asymptote at y=0, and its intercepts at (-2, 0), (0, 3), and (3, 0). — Figure 21

Writing Rational Functions

Now that we have analyzed the equations for rational functions and how they relate to a graph of the function, we can use information given by a graph to write the function. A rational function written in factored form will have an x-intercept where each factor of the numerator is equal to zero. (An exception occurs in the case of a removable discontinuity.) As a result, we can form a numerator of a function whose graph will pass through a set of x-intercepts by introducing a corresponding set of factors. Likewise, because the function will have a vertical asymptote where each factor of the denominator is equal to zero, we can form a denominator that will produce the vertical asymptotes by introducing a corresponding set of factors.

Writing Rational Functions from Intercepts and Asymptotes

If a rational function has x-intercepts at $x = x_{1}, x_{2}, ..., x_{n},$ vertical asymptotes at $x = v_{1}, v_{2}, \dots, v_{m},$ and no $x_{i} = any v_{j},$ then the function can be written in the form:

f (x) = a \frac{{(x - x_{1})}^{p_{1}} {(x - x_{2})}^{p_{2}} \dots {(x - x_{n})}^{p_{n}}}{{(x - v_{1})}^{q_{1}} {(x - v_{2})}^{q_{2}} \dots {(x - v_{m})}^{q_{m}}}

where the powers $p_{i}$ or $q_{i}$ on each factor can be determined by the behavior of the graph at the corresponding intercept or asymptote, and the stretch factor $a$ can be determined given a value of the function other than the x-intercept or by the horizontal asymptote if it is nonzero.

Example 12

Writing a Rational Function from Intercepts and Asymptotes

Write an equation for the rational function shown in Figure 22.

Graph of a rational function. — Figure 22

Solution

The graph appears to have x-intercepts at $x = - 2$ and $x = 3.$ At both, the graph passes through the intercept, suggesting linear factors. The graph has two vertical asymptotes. The one at $x = - 1$ seems to exhibit the basic behavior similar to $\frac{1}{x},$ with the graph heading toward positive infinity on one side and heading toward negative infinity on the other. The asymptote at $x = 2$ is exhibiting a behavior similar to $\frac{1}{x^{2}},$ with the graph heading toward negative infinity on both sides of the asymptote. See Figure 23.

Graph of a rational function denoting its vertical asymptotes and x-intercepts. — Figure 23

We can use this information to write a function of the form

f (x) = a \frac{(x + 2) (x - 3)}{(x + 1) {(x - 2)}^{2}} .

To find the stretch factor, we can use another clear point on the graph, such as the y-intercept $(0, –2) .$

\begin{array}{l} - 2 = a \frac{(0 + 2) (0 - 3)}{(0 + 1) {(0 - 2)}^{2}} \\ - 2 = a \frac{- 6}{4} \\ a = \frac{- 8}{- 6} = \frac{4}{3} \end{array}

This gives us a final function of $f (x) = \frac{4 (x + 2) (x - 3)}{3 (x + 1) {(x - 2)}^{2}} .$

Key Equations

..
Rational Function	$f (x) = \frac{P (x)}{Q (x)} = \frac{a_{p} x^{p} + a_{p - 1} x^{p - 1} + ... + a_{1} x + a_{0}}{b_{q} x^{q} + b_{q - 1} x^{q - 1} + ... + b_{1} x + b_{0}}, Q (x) \neq 0$

Key Concepts

We can use arrow notation to describe local behavior and end behavior of the toolkit functions $f (x) = \frac{1}{x}$ and $f (x) = \frac{1}{x^{2}} .$ See Example 1.
A function that levels off at a horizontal value has a horizontal asymptote. A function can have more than one vertical asymptote. See Example 2.
Application problems involving rates and concentrations often involve rational functions. See Example 3.
The domain of a rational function includes all real numbers except those that cause the denominator to equal zero. See Example 4.
The vertical asymptotes of a rational function will occur where the denominator of the function is equal to zero and the numerator is not zero. See Example 5.
A removable discontinuity might occur in the graph of a rational function if an input causes both numerator and denominator to be zero. See Example 6.
A rational function’s end behavior will mirror that of the ratio of the leading terms of the numerator and denominator functions. See Example 7, Example 8, Example 9, and Example 10.
Graph rational functions by finding the intercepts, behavior at the intercepts and asymptotes, and end behavior. See Example 11.
If a rational function has x-intercepts at $x = x_{1}, x_{2}, \dots, x_{n},$ vertical asymptotes at $x = v_{1}, v_{2}, \dots, v_{m},$ and no $x_{i} = any v_{j},$ then the function can be written in the form
$\begin{array}{l} \begin{array}{l} f (x) = a \frac{{(x - x_{1})}^{p_{1}} {(x - x_{2})}^{p_{2}} \dots {(x - x_{n})}^{p_{n}}}{{(x - v_{1})}^{q_{1}} {(x - v_{2})}^{q_{2}} \dots {(x - v_{m})}^{q_{n}}} \end{array} \end{array}$
See Example 12.

Section Exercises

Verbal

Exercise 1

What is the fundamental difference in the algebraic representation of a polynomial function and a rational function?

Solution

The rational function will be represented by a quotient of polynomial functions.

Exercise 2

What is the fundamental difference in the graphs of polynomial functions and rational functions?

Exercise 3

If the graph of a rational function has a removable discontinuity, what must be true of the functional rule?

Solution

The numerator and denominator must have a common factor.

Exercise 4

Can a graph of a rational function have no vertical asymptote? If so, how?

Exercise 5

Can a graph of a rational function have no x-intercepts? If so, how?

Solution

Yes. The numerator of the formula of the functions would have only complex roots and/or factors common to both the numerator and denominator.

Algebraic

For the following exercises, find the domain of the rational functions.

Exercise 6

$f (x) = \frac{x - 1}{x + 2}$

Exercise 7

$f (x) = \frac{x + 1}{x^{2} - 1}$

Solution

$All reals x \neq - 1, 1$

Exercise 8

$f (x) = \frac{x^{2} + 4}{x^{2} - 2 x - 8}$

Exercise 9

$f (x) = \frac{x^{2} + 4 x - 3}{x^{4} - 5 x^{2} + 4}$

Solution

$All reals x \neq - 1, - 2, 1, 2$

For the following exercises, find the domain, vertical asymptotes, and horizontal asymptotes of the functions.

Exercise 10

$f (x) = \frac{4}{x - 1}$

Exercise 11

$f (x) = \frac{2}{5 x + 2}$

Solution

V.A. at $x = - \frac{2}{5};$ H.A. at $y = 0;$ Domain is all reals $x \neq - \frac{2}{5}$

Exercise 12

$f (x) = \frac{x}{x^{2} - 9}$

Exercise 13

$f (x) = \frac{x}{x^{2} + 5 x - 36}$

Solution

V.A. at $x = 4, - 9;$ H.A. at $y = 0;$ Domain is all reals $x \neq 4, - 9$

Exercise 14

$f (x) = \frac{3 + x}{x^{3} - 27}$

Exercise 15

$f (x) = \frac{3 x - 4}{x^{3} - 16 x}$

Solution

V.A. at $x = 0, 4, - 4;$ H.A. at $y = 0;$ Domain is all reals $x \neq 0, 4, - 4$

Exercise 16

$f (x) = \frac{x^{2} - 1}{x^{3} + 9 x^{2} + 14 x}$

Exercise 17

$f (x) = \frac{x + 5}{x^{2} - 25}$

Solution

V.A. at $x = 5;$ H.A. at $y = 0;$ Domain is all reals $x \neq 5, - 5$

Exercise 18

$f (x) = \frac{x - 4}{x - 6}$

Exercise 19

$f (x) = \frac{4 - 2 x}{3 x - 1}$

Solution

V.A. at $x = \frac{1}{3};$ H.A. at $y = - \frac{2}{3};$ Domain is all reals $x \neq \frac{1}{3} .$

For the following exercises, find the x- and y-intercepts for the functions.

Exercise 20

$f (x) = \frac{x + 5}{x^{2} + 4}$

Exercise 21

$f (x) = \frac{x}{x^{2} - x}$

Solution

none

Exercise 22

$f (x) = \frac{x^{2} + 8 x + 7}{x^{2} + 11 x + 30}$

Exercise 23

$f (x) = \frac{x^{2} + x + 6}{x^{2} - 10 x + 24}$

Solution

$x -intercepts none, y -intercept (0, \frac{1}{4})$

Exercise 24

$f (x) = \frac{94 - 2 x^{2}}{3 x^{2} - 12}$

For the following exercises, describe the local and end behavior of the functions.

Exercise 25

$f (x) = \frac{x}{2 x + 1}$

Solution

Local behavior: $x \to - {\frac{1}{2}}^{+}, f (x) \to - \infty, x \to - {\frac{1}{2}}^{-}, f (x) \to \infty$

End behavior: $x \to \pm \infty, f (x) \to \frac{1}{2}$

Exercise 26

$f (x) = \frac{2 x}{x - 6}$

Exercise 27

$f (x) = \frac{- 2 x}{x - 6}$

Solution

Local behavior: $x \to 6^{+}, f (x) \to - \infty, x \to 6^{-}, f (x) \to \infty,$ End behavior: $x \to \pm \infty, f (x) \to - 2$

Exercise 28

$f (x) = \frac{x^{2} - 4 x + 3}{x^{2} - 4 x - 5}$

Exercise 29

$f (x) = \frac{2 x^{2} - 32}{6 x^{2} + 13 x - 5}$

Solution

Local behavior: $x \to {\frac{1}{3}}^{+}, f (x) \to –∞, x \to {\frac{1}{3}}^{-},$ $f (x) \to \infty, x \to - {\frac{5}{2}}^{-}, f (x) \to –∞, x \to - {\frac{5}{2}}^{+}$ , $f (x) \to \infty$

End behavior: $x \to \pm \infty,$ $f (x) \to \frac{1}{3}$

For the following exercises, find the slant asymptote of the functions.

Exercise 30

$f (x) = \frac{24 x^{2} + 6 x}{2 x + 1}$

Exercise 31

$f (x) = \frac{4 x^{2} - 10}{2 x - 4}$

Solution

$y = 2 x + 4$

Exercise 32

$f (x) = \frac{81 x^{2} - 18}{3 x - 2}$

Exercise 33

$f (x) = \frac{6 x^{3} - 5 x}{3 x^{2} + 4}$

Solution

$y = 2 x$

Exercise 34

$f (x) = \frac{x^{2} + 5 x + 4}{x - 1}$

Graphical

For the following exercises, use the given transformation to graph the function. Note the vertical and horizontal asymptotes.

Exercise 35

The reciprocal function shifted up two units.

Solution

$V . A . x = 0, H . A . y = 2$

Exercise 36

The reciprocal function shifted down one unit and left three units.

Exercise 37

The reciprocal squared function shifted to the right 2 units.

Solution

$V . A . x = 2, H . A . y = 0$

Exercise 38

The reciprocal squared function shifted down 2 units and right 1 unit.

For the following exercises, find the horizontal intercepts, the vertical intercept, the vertical asymptotes, and the horizontal or slant asymptote of the functions. Use that information to sketch a graph.

Exercise 39

$p (x) = \frac{2 x - 3}{x + 4}$

Solution

$V . A . x = - 4, H . A . y = 2; (\frac{3}{2}, 0); (0, - \frac{3}{4})$

Graph of p(x)=(2x-3)/(x+4) with its vertical asymptote at x=-4 and horizontal asymptote at y=2.

Exercise 40

$q (x) = \frac{x - 5}{3 x - 1}$

Exercise 41

$s (x) = \frac{4}{{(x - 2)}^{2}}$

Solution

$V . A . x = 2, H . A . y = 0, (0, 1)$

Graph of s(x)=4/(x-2)^2 with its vertical asymptote at x=2 and horizontal asymptote at y=0.

Exercise 42

$r (x) = \frac{5}{{(x + 1)}^{2}}$

Exercise 43

$f (x) = \frac{3 x^{2} - 14 x - 5}{3 x^{2} + 8 x - 16}$

Solution

$V . A . x = - 4, x = \frac{4}{3}, H . A . y = 1; (5, 0); (- \frac{1}{3}, 0); (0, \frac{5}{16})$

Graph of f(x)=(3x^2-14x-5)/(3x^2+8x-16) with its vertical asymptotes at x=-4 and x=4/3 and horizontal asymptote at y=1.

Exercise 44

$g (x) = \frac{2 x^{2} + 7 x - 15}{3 x^{2} - 14 x + 15}$

Exercise 45

$a (x) = \frac{x^{2} + 2 x - 3}{x^{2} - 1}$

Solution

$V . A . x = - 1, H . A . y = 1; (- 3, 0); (0, 3)$ ; removable discontinuity (hole) at $(1, 2)$

Graph of a(x)=(x^2+2x-3)/(x^2-1) with its vertical asymptote at x=-1 and horizontal asymptote at y=1.

Exercise 46

$b (x) = \frac{x^{2} - x - 6}{x^{2} - 4}$

Exercise 47

$h (x) = \frac{2 x^{2} + x - 1}{x - 4}$

Solution

$V . A . x = 4, S . A . y = 2 x + 9; (- 1, 0); (\frac{1}{2}, 0); (0, \frac{1}{4})$

Graph of h(x)=(2x^2+x-1)/(x-1) with its vertical asymptote at x=4 and slant asymptote at y=2x+9.

Exercise 48

$k (x) = \frac{2 x^{2} - 3 x - 20}{x - 5}$

Exercise 49

$w (x) = \frac{(x - 1) (x + 3) (x - 5)}{{(x + 2)}^{2} (x - 4)}$

Solution

$V . A . x = - 2, x = 4, H . A . y = 1, (1, 0); (5, 0); (- 3, 0); (0, - \frac{15}{16})$

Graph of w(x)=(x-1)(x+3)(x-5)/(x+2)^2(x-4) with its vertical asymptotes at x=-2 and x=4 and horizontal asymptote at y=1.

Exercise 50

$z (x) = \frac{{(x + 2)}^{2} (x - 5)}{(x - 3) (x + 1) (x + 4)}$

For the following exercises, write an equation for a rational function with the given characteristics.

Exercise 51

Vertical asymptotes at $x = 5$ and $x = - 5,$ x-intercepts at $(2, 0)$ and $(- 1, 0),$ y-intercept at $(0, 4)$

Solution

$y = 50 \frac{x^{2} - x - 2}{x^{2} - 25}$

Exercise 52

Vertical asymptotes at $x = - 4$ and $x = - 1,$ x-intercepts at $(1, 0)$ and $(5, 0),$ y-intercept at $(0, 7)$

Exercise 53

Vertical asymptotes at $x = - 4$ and $x = - 5,$ x-intercepts at $(4, 0)$ and $(- 6, 0),$ Horizontal asymptote at $y = 7$

Solution

$y = 7 \frac{x^{2} + 2 x - 24}{x^{2} + 9 x + 20}$

Exercise 54

Vertical asymptotes at $x = - 3$ and $x = 6,$ x-intercepts at $(- 2, 0)$ and $(1, 0),$ Horizontal asymptote at $y = - 2$

Exercise 55

Vertical asymptote at $x = - 1,$ Double zero at $x = 2,$ y-intercept at $(0, 2)$

Solution

$y = \frac{1}{2} \frac{x^{2} - 4 x + 4}{x + 1}$

Exercise 56

Vertical asymptote at $x = 3,$ Double zero at $x = 1,$ y-intercept at $(0, 4)$

For the following exercises, use the graphs to write an equation for the function.

Exercise 57

Graph of a rational function with vertical asymptotes at x=-3 and x=4.

Solution

$y = 4 \frac{x - 3}{x^{2} - x - 12}$

Exercise 58

Exercise 59

Graph of a rational function with vertical asymptotes at x=-3 and x=3.

Solution

27(x - 2) / ((x - 3)² (x + 3)) $y = 27 \frac{x - 2}{{(x - 3)}^{2} (x + 3)}$

Exercise 60

Exercise 61

Graph of a rational function with vertical asymptote at x=1.

Solution

$y = \frac{1}{3} \frac{x^{2} + x - 6}{x - 1}$

Exercise 62

Graph of a rational function with vertical asymptote at x=-2.

Exercise 63

Graph of a rational function with vertical asymptotes at x=-3 and x=2.

Solution

$y = - 6 \frac{{(x - 1)}^{2}}{(x + 3) {(x - 2)}^{2}}$

Exercise 64

Use $(0, - \frac{1}{2})$ as the additional point.

Graph of a rational function with vertical asymptotes at x=-2 and x=4.

Numeric

For the following exercises, make tables to show the behavior of the function near the vertical asymptote and reflecting the horizontal asymptote

Exercise 65

$f (x) = \frac{1}{x - 2}$

Solution

..
$x$	2.01	2.001	2.0001	1.99	1.999
$y$	100	1,000	10,000	–100	–1,000

..
$x$	10	100	1,000	10,000	100,000
$y$	.125	.0102	.001	.0001	.00001

Vertical asymptote $x = 2,$ Horizontal asymptote $y = 0$

Exercise 66

$f (x) = \frac{x}{x - 3}$

Exercise 67

$f (x) = \frac{2 x}{x + 4}$

Solution

..
$x$	–4.1	–4.01	–4.001	–3.99	–3.999
$y$	82	802	8,002	–798	–7998

..
$x$	10	100	1,000	10,000	100,000
$y$	1.4286	1.9331	1.992	1.9992	1.999992

Vertical asymptote $x = - 4,$ Horizontal asymptote $y = 2$

Exercise 68

$f (x) = \frac{2 x}{{(x - 3)}^{2}}$

Exercise 69

$f (x) = \frac{x^{2}}{x^{2} + 2 x + 1}$

Solution

..
$x$	–.9	–.99	–.999	–1.1	–1.01
$y$	81	9,801	998,001	121	10,201

..
$x$	10	100	1,000	10,000	100,000
$y$	.82645	.9803	.998	.9998

Vertical asymptote $x = - 1,$ Horizontal asymptote $y = 1$

Technology

For the following exercises, use a calculator to graph $f (x) .$ Use the graph to solve $f (x) > 0.$

Exercise 70

$f (x) = \frac{2}{x + 1}$

Exercise 71

$f (x) = \frac{4}{2 x - 3}$

Solution

$(\frac{3}{2}, \infty)$

Exercise 72

$f (x) = \frac{2}{(x - 1) (x + 2)}$

Exercise 73

$f (x) = \frac{x + 2}{(x - 1) (x - 4)}$

Solution

$(- 2, 1) \cup (4, \infty)$

Exercise 74

$f (x) = \frac{{(x + 3)}^{2}}{{(x - 1)}^{2} (x + 1)}$

Extensions

For the following exercises, identify the removable discontinuity.

Exercise 75

$f (x) = \frac{x^{2} - 4}{x - 2}$

Solution

$(2, 4)$

Exercise 76

$f (x) = \frac{x^{3} + 1}{x + 1}$

Exercise 77

$f (x) = \frac{x^{2} + x - 6}{x - 2}$

Solution

$(2, 5)$

Exercise 78

$f (x) = \frac{2 x^{2} + 5 x - 3}{x + 3}$

Exercise 79

$f (x) = \frac{x^{3} + x^{2}}{x + 1}$

Solution

$(- 1, 1)$

Real-World Applications

For the following exercises, express a rational function that describes the situation.

Exercise 80

In the refugee camp hospital, a large mixing tank currently contains 200 gallons of water, into which 10 pounds of sugar have been mixed. A tap will open, pouring 10 gallons of water per minute into the tank at the same time sugar is poured into the tank at a rate of 3 pounds per minute. Find the concentration (pounds per gallon) of sugar in the tank after $t$ minutes.

Exercise 81

In the refugee camp hospital, a large mixing tank currently contains 300 gallons of water, into which 8 pounds of sugar have been mixed. A tap will open, pouring 20 gallons of water per minute into the tank at the same time sugar is poured into the tank at a rate of 2 pounds per minute. Find the concentration (pounds per gallon) of sugar in the tank after $t$ minutes.

Solution

$C (t) = \frac{8 + 2 t}{300 + 20 t}$

For the following exercises, use the given rational function to answer the question.

Exercise 82

The concentration $C$ of a drug in a patient’s bloodstream $t$ hours after injection in given by $C (t) = \frac{2 t}{3 + t^{2}} .$ What happens to the concentration of the drug as $t$ increases?

Exercise 83

The concentration $C$ of a drug in a patient’s bloodstream_$t$hours after injection is given by $C (t) = \frac{100 t}{2 t^{2} + 75} .$ Use a calculator to approximate the time when the concentration is highest.

Solution

After about 6.12 hours.

For the following exercises, construct a rational function that will help solve the problem. Then, use a calculator to answer the question.

Exercise 84

An open box with a square base is to have a volume of 108 cubic inches. Find the dimensions of the box that will have minimum surface area. Let $x$ = length of the side of the base.

Exercise 85

A rectangular box with a square base is to have a volume of 20 cubic feet. The material for the base costs 30 cents/ square foot. The material for the sides costs 10 cents/square foot. The material for the top costs 20 cents/square foot. Determine the dimensions that will yield minimum cost. Let $x$ = length of the side of the base.

Solution

$A (x) = 50 x^{2} + \frac{800}{x} .$ 2 by 2 by 5 feet.

Exercise 86

A right circular cylinder has volume of 100 cubic inches. Find the radius and height that will yield minimum surface area. Let $x$ = radius.

Exercise 87

A right circular cylinder with no top has a volume of 50 cubic meters. Find the radius that will yield minimum surface area. Let $x$ = radius.

Solution

$A (x) = π x^{2} + \frac{100}{x} .$ Radius = 2.52 meters.

Exercise 88

A right circular cylinder is to have a volume of 40 cubic inches. It costs 4 cents/square inch to construct the top and bottom and 1 cent/square inch to construct the rest of the cylinder. Find the radius to yield minimum cost. Let $x$ = radius.

Using Arrow Notation

Local Behavior of f(x)= 1 x

End Behavior of f(x)= 1 x

Using Arrow Notation

Using Transformations to Graph a Rational Function

Analysis

Solving Applied Problems Involving Rational Functions

Solving an Applied Problem Involving a Rational Function

Analysis

Finding the Domains of Rational Functions

Finding the Domain of a Rational Function

Analysis

Identifying Vertical Asymptotes of Rational Functions

Vertical Asymptotes

Identifying Vertical Asymptotes

Removable Discontinuities

Identifying Vertical Asymptotes and Removable Discontinuities for a Graph

Identifying Horizontal Asymptotes of Rational Functions

Identifying Horizontal and Slant Asymptotes

Identifying Horizontal Asymptotes

Identifying Horizontal and Vertical Asymptotes

Finding the Intercepts of a Rational Function

Graphing Rational Functions

Graphing a Rational Function

Writing Rational Functions

Writing a Rational Function from Intercepts and Asymptotes

Key Equations

Key Concepts

Section Exercises

Verbal

Algebraic

Graphical

Numeric

Technology

Extensions

Real-World Applications

Local Behavior of $f (x) = \frac{1}{x}$

End Behavior of $f (x) = \frac{1}{x}$